00:00 Soil is essentially weathered rock that has been broken down into different sizes and mixed with living organisms, such as bacteria and fungi, in order to create a fertile environment.

05:12 Soil is formed by adding decomposing organic matter to weathered rock, which creates a fertile environment for plants to grow and allows nutrients to be unlocked and taken up by plants through their roots.

10:38 Clay is the finest type of soil and can compact together into large aggregate pieces, and if you start with just bedrock, you can grow a tree in the soil in about 100 years.

15:59 The different horizons of soil include the O-Horizon, which consists of decomposing leaves on top of the dirt, the A-Horizon, which is topsoil with organic matter and minerals, the E-Horizon, which is light-colored soil formed from leached minerals, and the B-Horizon, which is subsoil with finer particles and a clay layer.

21:04 Soil can be broken up using a San Angelo tool, which is a heavy spike that can break up tough clay or rock, but it's important to avoid hitting the granite bedrock underneath.

26:04 Soil is a living, breathing organism formed by different bits of life working together, while dirt is dead soil that may become soil one day if it behaves itself; soil is a mixture of sand, silt, and clay, with each component having different properties and effects on water drainage and retention; the ideal combination of these components depends on what you're trying to do with the soil, but it's possible to manipulate and amend the soil to achieve the desired composition.

31:13 Plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to build themselves up, and when they die, the carbon is locked inside them until it is broken down by soil organisms and made available for other plants to use.

36:26 Humus is the leftover material after composting that is essential for creating healthy soil and supporting a symbiotic network of organisms.

42:05 The soil is home to a wide variety of organisms, including moles, prairie dogs, lizards, snakes, spiders, scorpions, centipedes, millipedes, termites, roaches, and over 200 species of mites, as well as an abundance of microbes, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi, with a teaspoon of soil containing more microbes than there are people on Earth.

47:33 The largest living individual on Earth is a fungus called genet D, which covers 2,000 acres in Malheur National Forest and is considered a parasitic fungus that kills off trees.

52:46 Using factory-made fertilizer to replenish soil disrupts the natural nitrogen cycle and has negative effects on the environment, while agricultural practices like tilling can disturb humus and contribute to climate change.

58:02 The episode ends with a listener mail from a biology teacher who clarifies the difference between a disease and a disorder, explaining that a disease is caused by a pathogen while a disorder is a malfunction due to genetics, trauma, chemical toxicity, or other non-living factors.