00:00 In the late medieval period, civil wars and political instability were prevalent in every major kingdom in Western Europe, leading to the breakdown of central government and the rise of infighting among powerful nobles.

05:23 Late medieval politics in Europe were characterized by personal relationships among the elite, conflicts over rights, and a jumble of competing forces within each kingdom.

10:07 Late medieval kingdoms were less coherent than modern states, with a lack of division between internal and external politics, leading to the potential for civil wars and the rise of other political actors to fill the void of a weak or incompetent king.

15:11 Louis XI takes the throne and faces opposition from Charles the Bold, resulting in a bloody draw at the Battle of Montelli and the beginning of political instability in France.

20:15 Louis XI becomes king of France and begins enforcing his royal prerogatives, leading to a conflict with the Duke of Brittany and potential opposition from other powerful princes.

24:54 Louis XI becomes king of France and immediately faces opposition from powerful nobles who form a league against him, aiming to take control of the kingdom and diminish royal power.

29:39 Louis XI skillfully navigates a difficult political situation by making concessions to key players and dividing their interests, ultimately breaking up the rebel princes' alliance and saving royal government, but the fight is far from over as conflicts continue to plague the French crown.

35:14 Enrique IV of Castile faced conflicts over the power and administration of royal government, leading to a breakdown of his reign and the division of noble factions vying for control of the throne.

40:15 Isabella and Ferdinand, after their marriage in 1469, spent the next five years preparing to take the realm, and finally became the rulers of Castile in 1474, but faced ongoing conflict with Juana and Afonso of Portugal, which ended in 1479 with Juana renouncing her claim to the throne and her marriage being annulled, leaving Isabella and Ferdinand as the rulers of Castile and Aragon.

45:05 The conflicts in late medieval Europe, including in Aragon and Castile, were characterized by internal instability and the involvement of other kingdoms and foreign powers, resulting in complex and ever-shifting alliances and a lack of coherence within kingdoms.

49:52 The civil wars in late medieval Europe were interconnected through political actors who had their own rights and ties, resulting in conflicts over claims to power and the lengths they would go to defend those claims.

54:41 The interconnected political system in late medieval Europe led to conflicts that were all linked together, stretching across different kingdoms and regions.