00:00 In 1453, the Ottoman Empire used cannons to breach the walls of Constantinople, marking a turning point in history and the fall of the Byzantine Empire.

05:49 The Ottoman Empire, which had been expanding its power and centralizing its state, faced challenges from frontier lords and the threat of Timur's expanding territory in 1402.

10:52 In 1402, Timur invaded the Ottoman Empire, defeated Beyazid and his forces, ravaged Anatolia, and restored former Anatolian Baileaks to their lands, leading to an 11-year period of civil war among Beyazid's sons for control of the empire.

15:49 The 11-Year Civil War between 1402 and 1413 revealed the deep issues and fault lines within the early Ottoman state, including tensions between frontier lords and the centralizing desires of the sultans, and the fact that the Ottoman state was a collection of vassals, quasi-independent frontier lords, and Turkoman chieftains with autonomy and ambitions for independence.

21:06 The Ottomans faced complex geopolitical challenges, including dealing with various enemies and allies, internal revolts, and balancing different sets of incentives, while trying to centralize and expand their state, culminating in the conquest of Constantinople in 1453; as part of this process, the Ottomans implemented the Devshirma system, collecting Christian boys as tribute, like Ali (formerly John), who was taken from his village and converted to Islam to become a slave of the Sultan.

26:07 The Ottomans implemented the Devshirma system, collecting Christian boys as tribute, who would become slaves of the Sultan and could rise to positions of power and influence within the Ottoman Empire, such as the elite Janissary troops, highlighting the unique and effective structure of the Ottoman institutions.

31:00 The Byzantines, although politically, administratively, and economically weakened, were able to manipulate Ottoman dynastic politics and meddle in their affairs, supporting rebellions and causing disruptions, ultimately leading to the capture and execution of Mustafa and the consolidation of power by Murad the Second.

35:57 Murad II's reign was a time of transformation for the Ottoman Empire, with advancements in military technology, the centralization of power, and the strengthening of the state's control over vassal territories and land grants.

41:03 Mehmet II, the new Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, demonstrated his strength and determination by sacking the commanding officer of the Janissaries, building a massive fortress to control access to the Dardanelles, and executing envoys and sailors who challenged his authority, all in preparation for his campaign against Constantinople.

46:18 The Ottoman army, led by Mehmet II, faced the formidable walls of Constantinople, which had successfully defended the city against invaders for over a millennium, while the Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaeologos, gathered a small and diverse group of soldiers and mercenaries to defend the city against the overwhelming Ottoman forces.

51:24 After 47 days of siege, the Ottoman forces launched an all-out assault on the walls of Constantinople, with Ali and the janissaries leading the charge, but the attack seemed to fail until the Italians retreated, causing confusion among the defenders.

56:19 On May 29th, 1453, Mehmet took Constantinople, marking the end of one phase of Ottoman growth and establishing them as a major power in the region and beyond.