00:00 This podcast episode is about x-rays.

04:21 X-rays were discovered in 1895 by a German physicist named Wilhelm Röntgen, who noticed that a fluorescent screen was glowing when he turned on his electron beam.

08:34 X-rays were discovered by Wilhelm Röntgen, who didn't patent anything and didn't make money off of it, and they were first used practically in the Balkan war.

13:07 X-rays are produced when photons collide with atoms and transfer their energy to the atoms, causing the atoms to absorb the energy and move electrons between orbitals.

17:35 Different atoms have different densities and radiological densities, with high atomic weight atoms being able to absorb more energy and smaller atoms being easily kicked around by photons, which is why x-rays can penetrate soft tissue but are absorbed by denser calcium-rich bones, resulting in an x-ray image of the bones.

22:07 X-ray machines use a vacuum tube with an electrode pair (cathode and anode) to generate x-rays by passing a current through a heated filament, which spits out electrons that hit a disc made of tungsten, knocking off more electrons and creating a chain reaction of x-ray generation.

26:31 X-ray machines use a rotating anode and a cool oil bath to prevent overheating, and the images produced by x-rays can be recorded and analyzed using computerized tomography, mammography, and fluoroscopy, which requires the use of a contrast agent to visualize certain tissues.

30:52 X-rays can be harmful as they are a form of ionizing radiation that can cause cellular death, mutations, and cancer, which is why it is important to limit exposure and avoid unnecessary x-rays, especially for pregnant women.

35:23 X-rays should be used with caution and the minimum amount necessary to achieve the desired images, as exposure to too many x-rays can accumulate over time and lead to health problems, but they are still safer than exploratory surgery.

39:56 X-rays are a much better alternative to invasive procedures like surgery for diagnosing broken bones and other injuries.